Trichinella Infection in Culled Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) from El Palmar National Park, Argentina, and Exposure Risk in Humans and Dogs Consuming Wild Boar Meat.

Trichinellosis is a foodborne disease caused by ingestion of raw or undercooked meat containing Trichinella spp. larvae. Consumption of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat represents an important source of human trichinellosis worldwide. In El Palmar National Park (EPNP), Argentina, invasive alien wild boars are controlled and meat from culled animals is released for public consumption following on-site artificial digestion (AD) testing. Meat trimmings and offal from the control program are often used as food for dogs (Canis familiaris). We evaluated infection and exposure to Trichinella spp. in wild boars from EPNP, as well as exposure to Trichinella spp. and associated risk factors in dogs and human consumers of wild boar meat. Trichinella spp. larvae were detected in muscle samples from 5/49 wild boars by AD (10.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.8%-23%), with a mean burden of 0.24 larvae per gram (lpg; range, 0.06-0.95 lpg). Anti-Trichinella antibodies were not detected in wild boar serum samples (n=42). In dogs, 12/34 were seropositive to Trichinella spp. (35.29%; 95%, CI, 20.3%-53.5%). Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies were not detected in human serum samples (n=63). Our results reveal the presence, albeit at low prevalence, of Trichinella spp. in wild boars and exposure in dogs fed game offal. These findings suggest that the low prevalence and parasitic load in wild boars, together with the best practices applied by EPNP culling program personnel, contribute to keeping the risk of infection in people low. The dog results highlight that the parasite is circulating in the area, and therefore the risk of infection is not negligible. We recommend the implementation of an animal surveillance strategy in order to monitor the evolution of this zoonosis in the study area.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharide promotes the immunoprotective effects of a recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum vaccine expressing the Trichinella spiralis cathepsin F-like protease 1 gene.

Trichinellosis caused by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) is a zoonotic disease that poses a substantial risk to human health. At present, vaccines used to prevent trichinellosis are effective, but the production of antibody levels and immunogenicity are low. Adjuvants can increase antibody levels and vaccine immunogenicity. As a result, it is critical to develop an effective adjuvant for the T. spiralis vaccine. Recent research has shown that traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharides with low-toxicity and biodegradability can act as adjuvants in vaccines. In this study, BALB/c mice were orally inoculated with a recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) vaccine expressing the T. spiralis cathepsin F-like protease 1 gene (rTs-CPF1), which was given three times at 10-day intervals. Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) was administered orally for 37 days. At 37 days after the first immunization, mice were infected with 350 T. spiralis muscle larvae (ML). Specific IgG and sIgA antibody levels against the T. spiralis CPF1 protein were increased in mice immunized with rTs-CPF1+LBP compared to those immunized with rTs-CPF1 alone. Furthermore, LBP increased IFN-γ and IL-4 expression levels, and the number of intestinal and intramuscular worms was significantly reduced in the rTs-CPF1+LBP group compared to that in the rTs-CPF1 group. In the rTs-CPF1+LBP group, the reduction rates of adult worms and muscle larvae were 47.31 % and 68.88 %, respectively. To summarize, LBP promotes the immunoprotective effects of the T. spiralis vaccine and may be considered as a novel adjuvant in parasitic vaccines.

Trichinella spiralis cathepsin B bound and degraded host's intestinal type I collagen.

Trichinellosis is a zoonotic parasitic disease that poses threats to human health, the meat industry, food safety, and huge financial losses. The critical stage of Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) infection is the invasion of intestinal larvae into the host's intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). T. spiralis Cathepsin B (TsCB) specifically interacts with IECs to facilitate the invasion of larvae. This study aims to look at how TsCB affects mouse IECs. TsCB was successfully cloned, expressed, and characterized, demonstrating its natural cysteine protease hydrolysis activity. A total of 140 proteins that interact with rTsCB were identified by GST pull-down combined with LC-MS/MS, including type I collagen, an essential component of the host's intestinal epithelial barrier system and intimately related to intestinal epithelial damage. TsCB transcription and expression levels rise, whereas type I collagen in the host's intestinal mucosa declines when the T. spiralis larvae invaded. Besides, it was discovered that TsCB bound to and degraded type I collagen of the host's intestine. This research can serve as a foundation for clarifying how T. spiralis invades the host's intestinal barrier and might provide information on potential targets for the creation of novel treatments to treat parasite illnesses.

Trichinella spiralis: A new parasitic target for curcumin nanoformulas in mice models.

Trichinosis spiralis is a global disease with significant economic impact. Albendazole is the current-treatment. Yet, the world-widely emerging antimicrobial resistance necessitates search for therapeutic substitutes. Curcumin is a natural compound with abundant therapeutic benefits. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of crude-curcumin, chitosan and for the first time curcumin-nano-emulsion and curcumin-loaded-chitosan-nanoparticles against Trichinella spiralis adults and larvae in acute and chronic trichinosis models. Trichinosis spiralis was induced in 96 Swiss-albino mice. Infected mice were divided into 2 groups. Group I constituted the acute model, where treatment started 2 h after infection for 5 successive days. Group II constituted the chronic model, where treatment started at the 30th day-post-infection and continued for 10 successive days (Refer to graphical abstract). Each group contained 8 subgroups that were designated Ia-Ih and IIa-IIh and included; a; Untreated-control, b; Albendazole-treated (Alb-treated), c; Crude-curcumin-treated (Cur-treated), d; Curcumin-nanoemulsion-treated (Cur-NE-treated), e; Albendazole and crude-curcumin-treated (Alb-Cur-treated), f; Albendazole and curcumin-nanoemulsion-treated (Alb-Cur-NE-treated), g; Chitosan-nanoparticles-treated (CS-NPs-treated) and h; Curcumin-loaded-chitosan-nanoparticles-treated (Cur-CS-NPs-treated). Additionally, six mice constituted control-uninfected group III. The effects of the used compounds on the parasite tegument, in-vivo parasitic load-worm burden, local pathology and MDA concentration in small intestines of acutely-infected and skeletal muscle of chronically-infected mice were studied. Results showed that albendazole was effective, yet, its combination with Cur-NE showed significant potentiation against adult worms and muscle larvae and alleviated the pathology in both models. Cur-CS-NPs exhibited promising results in both models. Crude-curcumin showed encouraging results especially against muscle larvae on long-term use. Treatments effectively reduced parasite load, local MDA level and CD31 expression with anti-inflammatory effect in intestine and muscle sections.

Characterization of a novel dipeptidyl peptidase 1 of Trichinella spiralis and its participation in larval invasion.

The research aimed to describe a new Trichinella spiralis dipeptidyl peptidase 1 (TsDPP1) and investigate its functions in the larval invasion of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). The gene TsDPP1 was successfully replicated and produced in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3), showing a strong immune response. TsDPP1 was detected in diverse stages of T. spiralis and showed significant expression in the intestine infective larvae (IIL) and adult worms at 6 days post infection, as confirmed by qPCR and Western blot analysis. The primary localization of TsDPP1 in this parasite was observed in cuticles, stichosomes, and embryos by using the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIFA). rTsDPP1 exhibited the enzymatic function of natural dipeptidyl peptidase and showed specific binding to IECs, and the binding site was found to be localized on cell membrane. Following transfection with dsRNA-TsDPP1, the expression of TsDPP1 mRNA and protein in muscle larvae (ML) were decreased by approximately 63.52 % and 58.68 %, correspondingly. The activity of TsDPP1 in the ML and IIL treated with dsRNA-TsDPP1 was reduced by 42.98 % and 45.07 %, respectively. The acceleration of larval invasion of IECs was observed with rTsDPP1, while the invasion was suppressed by anti-rTsDPP1 serum. The ability of the larvae treated with dsRNA-TsDPP1 to invade IECs was hindered by 31.23 %. In mice infected with dsRNA-treated ML, the intestinal IIL, and adults experienced a significant decrease in worm burdens and a noticeable reduction in adult female length and fecundity compared to the PBS group. These findings indicated that TsDPP1 significantly impedes the invasion, growth, and reproductive capacity of T. spiralis in intestines, suggesting its potential as a target for anti-Trichinella vaccines.

Impact of atorvastatin and mesenchymal stem cells combined with ivermectin on murine trichinellosis.

Trichinellosis is one of the global food-borne parasitic diseases that can cause severe tissue damage. The traditionally used drugs for the treatment of trichinellosis have limited efficacy against the encysted larvae in the muscular phase of the disease. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the role of atorvastatin and mesenchymal stem cells combined with ivermectin against different phases of Trichinella in experimentally infected mice. A total of 120 male Swiss albino mice were divided into two major groups (n = 60 of each), intestinal and muscular phases. Then, each group was subdivided into 10 subgroups (n = 6); non-infected control, infected non-treated control, infected ivermectin treated, infected atorvastatin treated, infected mesenchymal stem cells treated, infected combined ivermectin and atorvastatin treated, infected combined mesenchymal stem cells and ivermectin treated, infected combined mesenchymal stem cells and atorvastatin treated, infected combined mesenchymal stem cells and a full dose of (ivermectin and atorvastatin) treated, and infected combined mesenchymal stem cells and half dose of (ivermectin and atorvastatin) treated. Mice were sacrificed at days 5 and 35 post-infection for the intestinal and muscular phases, respectively. The assessment was performed through many parameters, including counting the adult intestinal worms and muscular encysted larvae, besides histopathological examination of the underlying tissues. Moreover, a biochemical assay for the inflammatory and oxidative stress marker levels was conducted. In addition, levels of immunohistochemical CD31 and VEGF gene expression as markers of angiogenesis during the muscular phase were investigated. The combined mesenchymal stem cells and atorvastatin added to ivermectin showed the highest significant reduction in adult worms and encysted larvae counts, the most noticeable improvement of the histopathological changes, the most potent anti-inflammatory (lowest level of IL-17) and anti-angiogenic (lowest expression of CD31 and VEGF) activities, and also revealed the highly effective one to relieve the oxidative stress (lowest level of SOD, GSH, and lipid peroxidase enzymes). These observed outcomes indicate that adding mesenchymal stem cells and atorvastatin to ivermectin synergistically potentiates its therapeutic efficacy and provides a promising candidate against trichinellosis.

Identification of Trichinella taxa by ITS-1 amplicon next-generation sequencing with an improved resolution for detecting underrepresented genotypes in mixed natural infections.

BACKGROUND: Amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) has rapidly gained popularity as a powerful method for delineating taxa in complex communities, including helminths. Here, we applied this approach to identify species and genotypes of zoonotic nematodes of the Trichinella genus. A known limitation of the current multiplex PCR (mPCR) assay recommended by the International Commission on Trichinellosis is that it does not differentiate Trichinella nativa from T. chanchalensis. METHODS: The new assay entails deep sequencing of an amplified variable fragment of the ribosomal cistron's (rDNA) internal transcribed spacer 1 using the Illumina platform. The assay was evaluated using first-stage larvae (L1) of select laboratory strains of various Trichinella taxa mixed in known proportions and then validated using archived L1 from 109 wildlife hosts. The species/genotypes of these L1 isolates from wildlife were previously determined using mPCR. RESULTS: NGS data analysis for Trichinella laboratory strains selected as representative of North American fauna revealed a sequence representation bias. Trichinella pseudospiralis, a non-encapsulated species, was the most underrepresented when mixed with T. spiralis, T. murrelli, T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in equal quantities. However, five L1 of T. pseudospiralis were readily revealed by NGS in a mix with 2000 L1 of T. nativa (1:400 ratio). From naturally infected wildlife, all Trichinella taxa revealed by mPCR were also identified by NGS in 103 of 107 (96.3%) samples amplified on both assays. NGS identified additional taxa in 11 (10.3%) samples, whereas additional taxa were revealed by mPCR in only four (3.7%) samples. Most isolates comprised single or mixed infections of T. nativa and Trichinella T6. On NGS, T. chanchalensis (T13) was detected in combination with Trichinella T6 in a wolverine (Gulo gulo) and in combination with T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in a marten (Martes americana) from the Northwest Territories, Canada. CONCLUSIONS: This new NGS assay demonstrates strong potential as a single assay for identifying all recognised Trichinella taxa as well as improved sensitivity for detecting under-represented and novel genotypes in mixed infections. In addition, we report a new host record for T. chanchalensis in American marten.

Impact of resveratrol and zinc on biomarkers of oxidative stress induced by Trichinella spiralis infection.

Trichinellosis is a re-emerging worldwide foodborne zoonosis. Oxidative stress is one of the most common detrimental effects caused by trichinellosis. In addition, Trichinella infection poses an infinite and major challenge to the host's immune system. Resistance and side effects limit the efficiency of the existing anti-trichinella medication. Given that concern, this work aimed to investigate the anti-helminthic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of resveratrol and zinc during both phases of Trichinella spiralis infection. Sixty-four Swiss albino mice were divided into four equal groups: non-infected control, infected control, infected and treated with resveratrol, and infected and treated with zinc. Animals were sacrificed on the 7th and 35th days post-infection for intestinal and muscular phase assessments. Drug efficacy was assessed by biochemical, parasitological, histopathological, immunological, and immunohistochemical assays. Resveratrol and zinc can be promising antiparasitic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory agents, as evidenced by the significant decrease in parasite burden, the significant improvement of liver and kidney function parameters, the increase in total antioxidant capacity (TAC), the reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA) level, the increase in nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like-2 factor expression, and the improvement in histopathological findings. Moreover, both drugs enhanced the immune system and restored the disturbed immune balance by increasing the interleukin 12 (IL-12) level. In conclusion, resveratrol and zinc provide protection for the host against oxidative harm and the detrimental effects produced by the host's defense response during Trichinella spiralis infection, making them promising natural alternatives for the treatment of trichinellosis.

Acetazolamide loaded-silver nanoparticles: A potential treatment for murine trichinellosis.

Trichinellosis is a global food-borne disease caused by viviparous parasitic nematodes of the genus Trichinella. Due to the lack of effective, safe therapy and the documented adverse effects of traditional therapy, this study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of acetazolamide-loaded silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on murine trichinellosis. Fifty male Swiss albino mice were divided into five groups of ten mice each: Group I, normal control group; Group II, infected with T. spiralis and not treated; Group III, infected and given AgNPs; Group IV, infected and treated with acetazolamide; and Group V, infected and treated with acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs. Mice were infected orally with 250 larvae. The efficacy was assessed by counting T. spiralis adults and larvae, measuring serum total antioxidant capacity, and observing the histopathological and ultrastructural alterations. Acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs treatment exhibited the highest percentage of reduction (84.72% and 80.74%) for the intestinal adults and the muscular larvae of T. spiralis-infected animals, respectively. Furthermore, during the intestinal and muscular phases, the serum of the same group had the best free-radical scavenging capacity (antioxidant capacity), which reduced tissue damage induced by oxidative stress. Histopathologically, the normal intestinal and muscular architecture was restored in the group treated with acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs, in addition to the reduced inflammatory infiltrate that alleviated inflammation compared to infected animals. Our results confirmed the marked destruction of the ultrastructural features of T. spiralis adults and larvae. Acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs are a promising therapy against T. spiralis infection.

Identification of antigens in the Trichinella spiralis extracellular vesicles for serological detection of early stage infection in swine.

BACKGROUND: Several studies have reported the roles of Trichinella spiralis extracellular vesicles in immune regulation and pathogen diagnosis. Currently, the T. spiralis muscle larvae excretory/secretory product (Ts-ML-ES) is the antigen recommended by the International Commission on Trichinellosis (ICT) for serological diagnosis of trichinellosis. However, it can only be used to detect middle and late stages of infections, and cross-reactions with other parasite detections occur. Therefore, there is a need to identify antigens for specific detection of early stage trichinellosis. METHODS: Extracellular vesicles of T. spiralis muscle larvae (Ts-ML-EVs) were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, flow cytometry and western blot. Ts-ML-EVs protein profiles were analyzed by LC-MS/MS proteomics for identification of potential antigens (Ts-TTPA). Ts-TTPA were cloned into pMAL-c5X vector and expressed as recombinant proteins for evaluation of potential as detected antigens by western blot and ELISA. RESULTS: Isolated Ts-ML-EVs were round or elliptic (with diameters between 110.1 and 307.6 nm), showing a bilayer membrane structure. The specific surface markers on the Ts-ML-EVs were CD81, CD63, enolase and the 14-3-3 protein. A total of 53 proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS, including a variety of molecules that have been reported as potential detection and vaccine candidates. The cDNA of Ts-TTPA selected in this study has a total length of 1152 bp, encoding 384 amino acids with a molecular weight of 44.19 kDa. It contains a trypsin domain and can be recognized by anti-His antibody. It reacted with swine sera infected with 10,000 T. spiralis at 15, 25, 35 and 60 days post-infection (dpi). At 10 µg/ml, this antigen could detect T. spiralis antibodies from the swine sera at 13 dpi. There were no cross-reactions with the swine sera infected with other parasites including Clonorchis sinensis, Toxoplasma gondii, Taenia suis, Ascaris suis and Trichuris suis. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies potential early stage detection antigens and more thoroughly characterizes a serine protease domain-containing protein. Extracellular vesicle proteins may be explored as effective antigens for the early stage detection of trichinellosis.

Binding of Trichinella spiralis C-type lectin with syndecan-1 on intestinal epithelial cells mediates larval invasion of intestinal epithelium.

C-type lectin (CTL) is a protein that binds to saccharides and plays an important role in parasite adhesion, host cell invasion and immune evasion. Previous studies showed that recombinant T. spiralis C-type lectin (rTsCTL) promotes larval invasion of intestinal epithelium cells (IEC), whereas anti-rTsCTL antibodies inhibits larval invasion. Syndecan-1 (SDC-1) is a member of the heparan sulfate proteoglycan family which is mainly expressed on the surface of IEC and in extracellular matrices where they interact with a plethora of ligands. SDC-1 has a principal role in maintaining cell morphogenesis, establishing cell-cell adhesions, and regulating the gut mucosal barrier. The aim of this study was to investigate whether rTsCTL binds to SDC-1 on IEC, and the binding of rTsCTL with SDC-1 promotes larval invasion and its mechanism. IFA results show that rTsCTL and SDC-1 co-localized on Caco-2 cell membrane. GST pull-down and Co-IP verified the direct interaction between rTsCTL and SDC-1 on Caco-2 cells. qPCR and Western blotting revealed that rTsCTL binding to SDC-1 increased the expression of SDC-1 and claudin-2, and reduced the expression of occludin and claudin-1 in Caco-2 cells incubated with rTsCTL via the STAT3 pathway. ß-Xyloside (a syndecan-1 synthesis inhibitor) and Stattic (a STAT3 inhibitor) significantly inhibited rTsCTL binding to syndecan-1 in Caco-2 cells and activation of the STAT3 pathway, abrogated the effects of rTsCTL on the expression of gut tight junctions, and impeded larval invasion. The results demonstrate that binding of rTsCTL to SDC-1 on Caco-2 cells activated the STAT3 pathway, decreased gut tight junction expression, damaged the integrity of the gut epithelial barrier, and mediated T. spiralis invasion of the gut mucosa. TsCTL might be regarded as a candidate vaccine target against T. spiralis invasion and infection.

The impact of ß-glucan on the therapeutic outcome of experimental Trichinella spiralis infection.

Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan zoonosis that is caused mainly by Trichinella spiralis infection. The human disease ranges from mild to severe and fatality may occur. The treatment of trichinellosis still presents a challenge for physicians. Anti-inflammatory drugs are usually added to antiparasitic agents to alleviate untoward immuno-inflammatory responses and possible tissue damage but they are not without adverse effects. Thus, there is a need for the discovery of safe and effective compounds with anti-inflammatory properties. This study aimed to evaluate the activity of ß-glucan during enteral and muscular phases of experimental T. spiralis infection as well as its therapeutic potential as an adjuvant to albendazole in treating trichinellosis. For this aim, mice were infected with T. spiralis and divided into the following groups: early and late ß-glucan treatment, albendazole treatment, and combined treatment groups. Infected mice were subjected to assessment of parasite burden, immunological markers, and histopathological changes in the small intestines and muscles. Immunohistochemical evaluation of NF-κB expression in small intestinal and muscle tissues was carried out in order to investigate the mechanism of action of ß-glucan. Interestingly, ß-glucan potentiated the efficacy of albendazole as noted by the significant reduction of counts of muscle larvae. The inflammatory responses in the small intestine and skeletal muscles were mitigated with some characteristic qualitative changes. ß-glucan also increased the expression of NF-κB in tissues which may account for some of its effects. In conclusion, ß-glucan showed a multifaceted beneficial impact on the therapeutic outcome of Trichinella infection and can be regarded as a promising adjuvant in the treatment of trichinellosis.

The gut microbiota contributes to changes in the host immune response induced by Trichinella spiralis.

The gut microbiota plays an important role in parasite-host interactions and the induction of immune defense responses. Trichinella spiralis is an important zoonotic parasite that can directly or indirectly interact with the host in the gut. Changes in the gut microbiota following infection with T. spiralis and the role of the gut microbiota in host immune defense against T. spiralis infection were investigated in our study. 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that infection with T. spiralis can reduce the diversity of the gut microbiota and alter the structure of the gut microbiota during early infection, which was restored when the worm left the gut. Antibiotic treatment (ABX) and fecal bacterial transplantation (FMT) were used to investigate the role of the gut microbiota in the host expulsion response during infection with T. spiralis. We found that ABX mice had a higher burden of parasites, and the burden of parasites decreased after fecal bacterial transplantation. The results of flow cytometry and qPCR revealed that the disturbance of the gut microbiota affects the proportion of CD4+ T cells and the production of IL-4, which weakens Th2 responses and makes expulsion difficult. In addition, as the inflammatory response decreased with the changes of the microbiota, the Th1 response also decreased. The metabolomic results were in good agreement with these findings, as the levels of inflammatory metabolites such as ceramides were reduced in the ABX group. In general, T. spiralis infection can cause changes in the gut microbiota, and the presence or absence of microbes may also weaken intestinal inflammation and the expulsion of T. spiralis by affecting the immune response of the host.

Extract of Torreya nucifera Pericarps Exhibits a Parasiticidal Effect on the Nematode Parasite, Trichinella spiralis.

Benzimidazole derivatives can effectively treat nematode parasitic infections; however, some derivatives demand distinct administrative strategies depending on plasma concentration and patient conditions. Numerous studies have examined the potential of natural extracts to exert parasiticidal activity with minimal side effects. Herein, we examined the potential parasiticidal effects of Torreya nucifera extract. The pericarps of T. nucifera were extracted with methanol, dried, and the pellet was dissolved in hot water (Tn-Phw). We designed four individual mouse experiments to clarify the prophylactic and therapeutic effects of Tn-Phw on Trichinella spiralis infection. Also, 100 L1 larvae were isolated and treated with Tn-Phw (10 mg/mL) in vitro to confirm the killing effect. Furthermore, we microscopically examined the morphology of L1 larvae to confirm the parasite-killing effect and analyzed the morphology using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The expression of three molting-related genes was confirmed to determine whether Tn-Phw induced morphological changes in L1 larvae. Following treatment with Tn-Phw, L1 larvae death was observed after 16 h. Following SEM examination, the healthy muscle larvae showed striated ridges and wrinkles; this was not observed in extract-treated muscle larvae. Expression levels of the three molting-related genes did not differ between the Tn-Phw-treated and control groups. T. spiralis-infected mice pretreated with Tn-Phw showed significantly reduced muscle larva infection when compared with control mice. In all experiments, treatment with Tn-Phw afforded preventive and therapeutic effects against T. spiralis infection and parasitism. Natural substances against nematode parasites could be developed as therapeutic agents with few side effects and enhanced parasiticidal efficacy.

Epidemiology Study of Trichinella Spiralis Infection in Tyumen Region.

Trichinosis is a parasitic infection with worldwide distribution, which is caused by consuming pork or other meats containing cystic larvae of the parasitic nematode Trichinella Spiralis. This study aimed to investigate the status of infection Trichinella Spiralis in domestic and wild animals. To study the spread of trichinelles in animals, a retrospective analysis was conducted based on the study of research journals and conducted their research methods of compressor trichinelloscopy (microscopic) and digestion of samples in artificial gastric juice (biochemical). A total of 17 positive samples were detected for trichinellosis during the observation period, of which 58.8% belonged to a badger (Meles Meles), and 35.3% to the brown bear (Ursusarctos), and only 5.9% of wild boar (Susscrofa). The mean long-term extent of infection belonged to badgers (18.2%), bears (7.9%), and wild boars (0.05%). The study found that between 2015 and 2020, seventeen Trichinella cases were recorded among wildlife in the Tyumen region and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region. The number of annual Trichinella detection cases was declining, indicating the effectiveness of veterinary services. This study determined that the primary source of infection was bears, badgers, and wild boars. Among the 17 positive samples, 58.8% belonged to the badger, 35.3% to the bear, and only 5.9% to the wild boar.

Stem cell biotherapy: A new remedy for Trichinella spiralis-induced inflammatory myopathy.

Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis)-induced myopathy is an inflammatory myopathy that is difficult to treat unless the parasite is combated in its early intestinal phase before it reaches the muscles. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of local mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy on T. spiralis-induced inflammatory myopathy in rats. Rats were divided into four groups: Group 1 (non-infected non-treated group); Group 2 (infected non-treated group); Group 3 (infected albendazole (ABZ)-treated group); and Group 4 (infected MSC-treated group). Their muscle status was assessed physiologically with the righting reflex and electromyography (EMG), parasitologically with the total muscle larval count, histopathologically with hematoxylin and eosin and Mallory's trichrome stains, as well as immunohistochemically for myogenin as a marker of muscle regeneration. Additionally, serum muscle enzymes creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), as well as muscle matrix metalloproteinases MMP1 and MMP9, were assayed. Finally, the immunological response was assessed by measuring the levels of the muscle inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (INF-γ), and interleukin-4 (IL-4). Our findings revealed that MSC therapy markedly improved muscle EMG and righting reflex, as well as the histopathological appearance of the muscles, reduced inflammatory cellular infiltrates, and increased myogenin immunostaining. It also reduced serum CK and LDH levels, as well as muscle INF-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, MMP1, and MMP9 levels. However, it had no effect on the total muscle larval count. Accordingly, due to its anti-inflammatory properties and muscle-regenerative effect, MSC therapy could be a promising new remedy for T. spiralis-induced myopathy.

In vitro knockdown of TsDNase II-7 suppresses Trichinella spiralis invasion into the host's intestinal epithelial cells.

Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) adult-specific deoxyribonuclease II-7 (TsDNase II-7), a member of the DNase II-like nuclease family with no DNase II activity, was identified in the excretory-secretory (ES) products of adult worms (AWs). However, its biological functions are still unclear. Our previous study revealed that TsDNase II-7 is located around the infection site in the intestinal tissue, speculating that it was involved in the T. spiralis invasion of host intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). This study aimed to use RNA interference to verify our speculation that TsDNase II-7 in 3-day old adult T. spiralis (Ad3) plays a role in intestinal invasion. TsDNase II-7-specific small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) were delivered into muscle larvae (MLs) to knockdown TsDNase II-7 expression by electroporation. Twenty-four hours later, the MLs transfected with 2 µM siRNA-841 exhibited decreased in TsDNase II-7 transcription and expression as compared to the control MLs. The knockdown of TsDNase II-7 expression did not affect ML viability, and the low expression of TsDNase II-7 still maintained in Ad3 recovered from TsDNase II-7-RNAi-ML infected mice, resulting in a weakened ability of Ad3 to invade intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). These results indicated that knockdown of TsDNase II-7 gene expression via RNA interference (RNAi) suppressed adult worm invasion and confirmed that TsDNase II-7 plays a crucial role during the intestinal phase of T. spiralis infections, which provided new candidate for vaccine development of T. spiralis.

Evaluation of the therapeutic effect of Olibanum extract against enteric and intramuscular phases of trichinosis in experimentally infected mice.

Trichinosis is a global food-borne zoonotic disease. Most drugs used in its treatment have low bioavailability and reduced activity against larvae. Therefore, there is an urgent need for safe and effective medications. This study aimed to investigate the in vivo anti-parasitic and anti-inflammatory efficacy of olibanum (OL) extract, alone or combined with albendazole (ABZ) during both intestinal and muscular phases of trichinosis. Male Swiss albino mice (n = 130) were allocated to seven groups, with 20 mice in each group except for the negative control group (10 mice): negative control (GI), positive control (GII), OL25- treated (GIII), OL50- treated (GIV), ABZ50- treated (GV), OL25 + ABZ25 (GVI), and OL50 + ABZ25 (GVII). For intestinal and muscular phase analysis, each group was divided into two subgroups based on euthanizing day (6 and 35 days post-infection). The drug's efficacy was evaluated through parasitological, biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical studies. OL extract at both concentrations (25 mg/kg/d, 50 mg/kg/d) significantly reduced adult (53.7% and 68.1%, respectively) and larval counts (57.3% and 78.8%, respectively). It improved the histopathological changes in intestine and muscle. The expression of CD8+ T cells and the serum level of IL-10 increased significantly during both intestinal and muscular phases (P < 0.05) in OL50 treated mice. Additionally, OL decreased abnormal levels of liver enzymes (ALT & AST). Its effects were dose-dependent in both adult and larval stages. In conclusion, OL exhibits promising in vivo activity against both stages of Trichinella spiralis infection, particularly at the intramuscular phase. It can be safe as an alternative treatment for trichinosis.

Increased neutrophil derived chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL2) in human trichinellosis as possible serological markers of the polarization of the immune response against the parasite.

Trichinella britovi is a widely distributed parasitic nematode, transmitted through ingestion of raw or poorly cooked meat containing muscle larvae. This helminth can regulate the host immune system during the early phase of infection. The immune mechanism mainly involves the interaction of Th1 and Th2 responses and related cytokines. Chemokines (C-X-C or C-C) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have also shown to be implicated in a number of parasitic infections, mainly malaria, neurocysticercosis, angiostronyloidosis, and schistosomiasis, but poor is known about their role in human Trichinella infection. We previously found that serum MMP-9 levels were significantly increased in T. britovi infected patients with relevant symptoms such as diarrhea, myalgia, and facial oedema, which makes these enzymes a potential reliable indicator of inflammation in trichinellosis patients. These changes were also observed in T. spiralis/T. pseudospiralis experimentally infected mice. No data are available about circulating levels of two pro-inflammatory chemokines, CXCL10 and CCL2, in trichinellosis patients with or w/o clinical signs of the infection. In this study, the association of serum level of CXCL10 and CCL2 with clinical outcome of T. britovi infection and their relation to MMP-9 were investigated. Patients (median age 49 ± 0.33 years) acquired infection by consuming raw sausages prepared with wild boar and pork meat. Sera were collected during the acute and the convalescent phases of the infection. A positive significant association (r = 0.61, p = 0.0004) was observed between MMP-9 and CXCL10 levels. The CXCL10 level significantly correlated with the severity of symptoms in patients being particularly higher in patients suffering diarrhea, myalgia, and facial oedema, thus suggesting a positive association of this chemokine with symptomatologic traits, especially myalgia (and increased LDH and CPK levels) (p < 0.005). No correlation was found between levels of CCL2 and the clinical symptoms.

Infection of Trichinella spiralis Affects the Reproductive Capacity of ICR/CD-1 Male Mice by Reducing the Urine Pheromone Contents and Sperm Quality.

Female mice can discriminate the urinary odors of male mice due to their olfactory acuity. Parasitic infection or subclinical infection can decrease the odor attractiveness of male mice and finally lead to aversion or avoidance responses in odor selection for female mice. Trichinella spiralis is a kind of tissue-parasitizing nematode that causes trichinellosis, a zoonotic parasitic disease that spreads throughout the world. However, the reproductive injury caused by Trichinella spiralis infection was not fully revealed. In this study, we explored the effect of Trichinella spiralis infection on the reproductive capacity in ICR/CD-1 male mice. We identified eight volatile compounds in urine by GC-MS analysis, and the results indicated that the contents of dimethyl sulfone, Z-7-tetradecen-1-ol, 6-Hydroxy-6-methyl-3-heptanone and (S)-2-sec-butyl-4,5-dihydrothiazole were significantly downregulated after parasitic infection, which might lead to the reduction of attractiveness of male mice urine to females. On the other hand, parasitic infection decreased sperm quality and downregulated the expression levels of Herc4, Ipo11, and Mrto4, and these genes were strongly related to spermatogenesis. In summary, this study revealed that the reproductive injury caused by Trichinella spiralis infection in ICR/CD-1 male mice could be associated with a decrease in urine pheromone content and sperm quality.